How did centuries of foreign rule impact the development of southern Italy compared to the north?

Southern Italy's underdevelopment stems from centuries of foreign domination by various powers including the Spanish and Austrians, which established a culture of absentee landlordism and persistent feudalism. Unlike northern Italy, which developed thriving, independently governed communes and city-states that built social capital among citizens, the south was prevented from managing its own affairs for centuries. This historical exploitation by outside monarchies hindered the emergence of a strong middle class and prevented meaningful investments in local populations. As a result, southern Italy developed a sense of resentment and distrust toward government, creating a cycle where both the unified Italian government and the south viewed each other with mutual trepidation—the south seeing the north as another colonial overlord, and the north viewing the south as an economic drain.